Friday 5 September 2014

BLOG

Music and Meaning in Reality TV competition finals.


During the last three months Reality TV music competitions have received a lot of attention in the public media. For example millions have viewed the finals of the Eurovision Song Contest and BBC Young Musician and, following these, there was copious feedback on Channel 4’s “Gogglebox “, on Facebook and in Twitter about Conchita’s “drag” act and Martin James Bartlett’s facial expressions. Arguably such cursory comments, though often interesting, fail to delve deeply enough into the possible musical meaning of Reality TV competitions. They also fail to properly consider the input to the musical meaning of such areas as semiotics , age and gender ,the ethnic identities of performers and the influence of industry and commerce-

 In my article:
i)                 I  draw attention to  some different understandings of the terms “meaning”, “music”  and “meanings of music”

       ii)            I relate these to four different stages of  reception of Reality TV music competitions    
                     a) anticipation of performance
                     b) actual performance
                     c) audience reception of performance
                     d) adjudication of performance

iii)               I consider whether such Reality TV music competitions have an important and lasting
              musical meaning and how their  influence  and benefits can be increased.


       













i) The word meaning has five definitions in the “Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English” (2012) all of which can refer to music;

·        Meaning, according to the semiotic analyst, Ferdinand de Saussure (de Saussure, 1966), can relate to signs in music or language comprising a combination of concepts and sound images. As regards the area of music, concepts can, for example, be the names of notes  or pieces of music (for example the names for the notes  “ F “ and “A” and  the title “Rhapsody”, and  sound images can firstly comprise the sounds of the notes “F” and “A” and secondly the actual performance and sounds  of a particular “rhapsody” . In the case of music those responsible for the signs are termed signifiers.   Different examples of signifiers include singers, players, conductors and creators of sound effects. They are responsible for interpreting the signified components, namely the musical ideas. This first definition of meaning, laying particular emphasis on the signs of music, reveals the need for performers and producers to encode the meaning of the signs they are presented with so that they can mediate them to the listeners.

·        Meaning can also relate to the thoughts and emotions expressed in music by a composer or performer, for example the thoughts and feelings relating to the songs “Congratulations” sung by Cliff Richard and “Erwartung” by Arnold Schoenberg.  As Ian Cross
 (2004, Cross) points out, music presents “an infinite range of complex patterns relating to spaciality and tactility as well as to historical, ethnic and social location”.

·        Meaning can relate to composition or performance -value as indicated in such  as
those by David Biermann(Biermann,2014) “Bernard Shaw and Paul Heise have both written informative articles about the allegorical meaning of Wagner’s Ring Cycle” and “Bartlett’s virtuosic performance gave ‘Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini” special meaning .”

·        Meaning can relate to the nature and importance of a particular composition or performance. I recently read the following Twitter comment which seems partly to imply that the writer believes that some pieces of music do not bear repetition “   We hear Elgar’s Cello Concerto so often that we seem to have forgotten its true meaning”.

·        Meaning can relate to understanding of a type of music or a manner of performance.
Again the contents of two  recent comments on radio revealing the use of this definition of “meaning”(Anon, 2012), namely “Very few listeners understand the meaning of the twelve-tone row” and “the real meaning of Morricone’s ‘Mission’ cannot be fully realised by just reading the graphic score ” deserve our consideration

Second, it is necessary for us to define the keyword “music”.  In the “Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English” (2012) there are three definitions. There can surely be very little dispute about two of the three, namely 1) “a set of written marks representing the length and pitch of sounds” and 2) the art of playing or singing sounds” but the description used in 3), that is “a series of sounds made by instruments in a way that is pleasant or exciting” is surely much more debatable. You might decide that this series of sounds is pleasant or exciting whereas I might find them awful.  I believe that the following definition of music as defined in ‘What is Music?’, namely “music is what is for me, pleasant sound(Biermann, 1994) “me” is a universal who can be young or old, man or woman, music lecturer or student and European or Asian.
According to this definition if Oliver Cundy , editor of BBC Music,likes a performance of a particular piece, it is for him pleasant sound and therefore it is music for him. If Simon Cowell does not like the same performance, it is for him unpleasant sound and it is therefore not music. My definition allows for differences of taste and, as a direct result, it democratizes music.

Third, how can we best define “the meaning of music”? As Jenefer Robinson (Robinson,1997) points out in her book “Music and Meaning”  there have been two contrasting views for many years, one stating that music itself has intrinsic value and that only instrumental music comprising musical forms progressing tonally constitutes music with real meaning , and the other, that  music has both intrinsic and extrinsic value, and that these, in combination, comprise its meaning. Those holding the former view included Professor Eduard Hanslick (Hanslick, 2008) who writes in “Vom Musikalisch-Schoenen” that only instrumental music is pure music. Contemporary supporters of Hanslick’s view include Roger Scruton in “Aesthetics of Music” (Scruton, 1999) and Malcolm Budd (Budd,1992)who both believe that instrumental music has intrinsic value and expresses the pure and the absolute in sound.

 In contrast to this view Susan McClary (McClary, 1991)   sees the contents of all kinds of music as having contextual relationships , for example the off- beat chords in the development section of Beethoven’s 3rd symphony show the composer’s sexual exploits, not merely his musical wishes. The widely- believed importance of extra-musical connections to compositions stems of course from writings of twentieth century music scholars including those of Susanne Langer (Langer,1953) and Leonard Meyer (Meyer,1956).According to Langer one of the principal meanings of music is to transmit in sound, to an audience, direct or intuitive knowledge of life’s patterns and feelings and emotions, which ordinary language is unable to convey.

Meyer shares Langer’s view that one of the meanings of music is to express human emotions, but that music with both intrinsic AND extrinsic values are equally important. He names intrinsic –value music as ABSOLUTIST MUSIC, i.e. music stressing that the meaning of which lies exclusively within the context of a work itself. And extrinsic-values music as REFERENTIALIST MUSIC: which is concerned with the wider, extra -musical world of concepts, actions, emotional states, and character. The “Rhapsody on a theme by Paganini” can be seen as Absolutist and Conchita’s “Rise from the Phoenix” can be seen as Referentialist. Nowadays the majority of music analysts would use the term “programme music” instead of “Referentialist Music”.

I now propose to relate music and meaning to the different stages of audience reception of TV music competitions, namely
a)  anticipation    
b)  performance
c)  audience reception
d)  adjudication.

Anticipation of an event, be it a football match or a music competition, is the earliest stage of music reception. TV audiences are nowadays not merely gained as a result of press and media advertising and promotion, but also by Internet advertising, blogs, twitter exchanges and verbal and visual priming, all of which seek to promote participants into celebrities. At a later stage these might eventually not merely perform their music but might also become presenters of music and other programmes.  Once TV faces are accepted by the public there is often no limit to the areas of TV presentation which might be open to them. Obviously prospective viewers must be provided with some information about a programme’s performers, presenters and music in order to persuade them to watch it, so careful prior advertising either in the press or on TV is important.
Stephen Davies (Davies, 1994) writes of there being a “predictive coherence” in TV audience/ viewer’s expectations and the meaning of the music for viewers is naturally associated with both expectations and realisations
I recall attending an informative series of lectures at Cambridge in 1965/6  when Dr Nicholas Temperley (1965) ,Senior Lecturer in Music at Cambridge informed us about four different kinds of audience/viewers’ anticipation prior to  watching/listening to music programmes.

*Non- anticipation where audiences have no previous memories or knowledge of what kind of musical performance will happen next in a programme,
*Stylistic-anticipation where prospective audiences know that a programme will contain certain styles of music, for example, hip hop, reggae and klezmer. Certain signature tunes and will access particular presenters and judges, certain sequences of events.
*Partial- anticipation particularly where competitors have to repeatedly perform the same pieces or sections of these pieces in heats and in the Final
*Total anticipation where everything about a future performance is known by the audience.

It is useful to consider Temperley’s divisions (1965) and relate these to the “priming” of TV audiences watching Reality TV competitions such as “Eurovision Song Contest” and “BBC Young Musician. In neither competition will there be Non-anticipation as the organisational ground- rules in both competitions have existed for many years.  Stylistic anticipation contributes a great deal to the meaning of both competitions. For example, “BBC Young Musician” has always contained solo performances of “classical” music with accompaniment and “Eurovision Song Contest” has always contained popular songs either with live or with recorded accompaniments.

The amount of Partial anticipation that occurs depends on the frequency that entire pieces or extracts are repeated and also, to what extent, previous performances are remembered and compared with ones currently being viewed. Total anticipation is usually regarded by programme producers as a “viewer turn-off” except where play-backs of extracts are considered by judges prior to their summings-up. Total anticipation is impossible as the listeners’ earlier experiences may differ depending upon their age, on their moods, on the time of day and who is performing the piece.

Temperley’s lectures describing the four different stages of anticipation relate interestingly to Leonard Meyer’ earlier comments (1956) on Information Theory written ten years earlier. Meyer writes that musical performances are sequences of events, which can be illustrated and summarized in complex-looking algebraic formulae known as Markov chains. Analysis of sequences of noteswas earlier done on SNOBOL and is now being done using AWK and Perl. By examining these, researchers can predict the mathematic probabilities as to what will next happen in a particular chain of events. Additionally all viewers of Reality TV music competitions can assume  that programme presenters will try to provide  positive introductions and feedback, that performers’ family histories will be shown,  that snatches of conversation between performers, teachers, friends  and relations will be heard, that their own reactions and those of judges will be almost immediately relayed to the viewers. The mass media producing CD, DVD and recordings and music will be aware of the fact that global sales of winning performances will increase dramatically following announcement of the competition winner. In this connection it is important to remember Tim Wall’s (Wall, 2013) comment that consumers feel that they listen to or watch the very same piece of music whether this piece be on television, radio, IPlayer, mp3  or on computer download.

More recently Kendall Walton (Walton, 1994) in “Listening with Imagination” has written of an interesting development of the theories of Anticipation and Information Theory mentioned above, namely the importance of visual and musical   sound props in performances. .According to Walton these props generate fictional truths in an imaginary game (namely “a game of visual make believe” in which production teams, performers and viewers all take an active part)) In my view Walton’s “props” reveal the increased significance nowadays of unnecessary  visual contextual elements  in TV broadcasts of music . Regarding the former, viewers awaiting the result of the BBC Young Musician Final in 2014 first saw footage of the nervous candidates behind stage, after that an apparently exactly –timed suspense shot showing a picture of the head judge, then shots of all three competitors prior to the camera finally zooming in on Martin James Bartlett as he was declared winner. Regarding the latter, namely the Final of the Eurovision Song Contest the winner’s, tall figure, long cloak and elaborately coiffured locks were elaborate visual props which suggested that the singer wished to portray that he was an Old or New Testament prophet.

b) Performance.  In the previous section I indicated that a large amount of visual, spoken and musical information is available to prospective viewers prior to and also during Reality TV music competitions. About a week prior to performances, advertising material for the shows under discussion featured:
aide-memoire” inserts, for example tropes such as “you can watch the finalists of x, y or z  on BBC2 tomorrow ” and visuals comprising rapidly-changing close-ups of the finalists of “Young Musician”.
*reveille-like reminders of the theme tunes of the shows.
*clips featuring short visual sequences of winners of previous years.
* flashing captions containing large multi-coloured texts.
 It is important to note that a variety of orchestral instruments (including recorder and varied percussion) were performed on this year’s “Young Musician “and many types of popular music including ballads, hip-hop and disco were sung in the “Eurovision Song Contest “. All competition performances aimed to appeal to global audiences, naturally to a far greater extent for the “Eurovision Song Contest” than for “BBC Young Musician”. Claudia Gorbmann (Gorbmann, 1987) mentions three types of musical performance, namely:

*diagetic music- that is music specifically created for and performed on television, video or online namely competitors’/performers’ choice of music as well as signature tunes and links. . Generally the sources of sounds are visible (these include sols performed by guest performers on TV music competitions).

*intra-diagetic music- additional music used within the TV narratives-for example music accompanying  voice-overs as well as other background music.

*non -diagetic music- additional music often comprising play-backs using freeze-frames, nowadays frequently used to provide viewers with aural mementoes. Generally the sources of the sounds are not visible.

The term “diagetic” is here used to define the link between the TV performer and his/her musical output.

Some writers question whether TV is as successful as radio in mediating music. According to Simon Frith (Frith, 2002) “TV consumes music rather than conveys it meaningfully”. In the view of Michael Chanan (Chanan, 2002) TV sound is inferior to that of Radio and “TV music is aural pollution”.   In TV’s defence , one can, with justification , point out that, it has brought competitive performance in music to a greater number of people of different ages   different ethnic and social groups  than ever before. There is also now a greater variety of TV music competition formats and distinct musics being promoted (for example programmes such as “the Voice” and “BBC Young Jazz Musician” – the new cultural narrative on BBC4).Now more viewers can access TV through personal media, wireless access and high speed broadband. Finally more and more programmes are attempting to “highlight” music and promote their competitions by Inviting viewers to select their chosen performers on the phone or online.
For the competitors there are undoubted benefits of TV mediation. According to Janice Hadley, Head of BBC4, TV programming of music allows the introduction of an intelligent and discerning audience to new and challenging music.

On the other hand can TV music ever be regarded as real rather than, to quote Jean Baudrillard’s term “hyper real”? Prior to viewers watching competition programmes, performance passes through so many different programme controls which determine length and position of musical extracts, sound controls, camera shots, editing, time manipulation, types of sound and lighting. It is my belief that the real ingredients of music are being subsumed by “bake offs” where the musical performances of the competitors are being “re-packaged” so as to hopefully attract large TV audiences who provide business for global and internet marketing. Further it might be argued that the cultural contexts of the programme- controls mentioned intervene in the viewers’ perception of the real music so that performers’ interpretations are perhaps adversely affected.

c) Audience reception of reality TV music competitions is of key importance. For a show to be successful viewers must both accept and “take to their hearts” at least one or two of the competitors. As regards reality shows in general Peter Dahlgren (Dahlgren, 1995) writes of there being a four-fold relationship between the media and the audience –
·        A reliance on the importance of one-way communication, although as we shall see later, multi-way communication is becoming more important.
·        special segregation of production from reception
·        repeatability of musical content
·        orientation towards an indefinite, now possibly global range of potential recipients
As regards “one-way communication” Ang Lee , Film Director, was recently reported on a BBC4 as being  of the opinion that the media organisations select specific audiences to receive particular types of broadcasts. In so doing they are acting as panoptical dictators.

In contrast, one might argue, as does Fred Everett Maus (Maus, 1997), that there has never been one-way communication between TV and viewers as each viewer will personalise his/her own  experience of viewing”. According to Maus, when we watch performers on TV, we actually become them “in spirit”. For a short period we take on their identities and skills, while at the same time we are aware that we are also sharing our viewing and listening experience with others.

 Even if we do not accept Maus’s argument, it is the case that an audience feedback for Reality TV music competition is becoming more prevalent In addition to “Gogglebox” which is subject to all the visual, text and sound alterations carried out by Channel 4 , independent ratings sites can be found on the web as well as global social media outlets including blogs, tweets, Facebook comments and Youtube excerpts of competitors and imitators. In many areas “dial “and “cable” –testing are carried out to ascertain viewers’ opinions of the performers

 As regards the Eurovision song contest final a complex interactive system involving phone-ins of viewers within all the Eurovision countries takes place. On the face of it, this appears that the system is not totally “fool proof” as national judges and audiences may have different phone-in facilities in the different countries. No one can check the sources of the input of all the calls received. At this moment the result of the BBC Young Musician does not depend on viewers’ immediate feedback, though there is little doubt that this will eventually be requested in many  more music competitions/.

Studio audiences of TV competitions are much more demonstrative and vociferous than they used.to be. This may have been led by present-day producers’ wishes for immediate feedback from performers and viewers in the form of oral and visual feedback and the apparent need for show the TV world one’s feelings and emotions. Audience shouting and cheering have partly replaced clapping in both TV competitions under discussion, but to a greater extent in the Eurovision Song Contest.

Robin Maconie (Maconie,1990) refers to all the above-mentioned areas of audience appreciation in his “Music Listening and Applause”.
The following five points have particular relevance to music and meaning on Reality TV.
First, there is apparently a strong relationship between the physical movement shown towards the end of TV musical, performances   and the physical movement plus volume of the ensuing applause and cheering.
Second, audience applause and cheering constitute the behaviour of the mass and viewers’ wishes to embrace the performers “with sound”.
Third, they undermine the usual perceptual strategies we employ to build up a sense of space/distance and as a direct result, assist us to participate in the musical event shown, whether we are part of the live or TV audience.
Fourth, audience clapping and cheering awaken our sense of our own individual identity after the period of immobility during which we watch a particular competitor.
Fifth, the juxtaposition of musician’s performance to the sound of the applause or cheering “scrambles” the image of the music which we have received and allows us to fill an unpleasant sound-void which would otherwise have been created.

All the above points seem to relate to short-term rather than long-term appreciation. For example we cannot remember the exact period of time that audiences applauded or cheered particular items however we can remember the musical performances concerned for much longer periods of time.
It is not the case that our long-term memories of performances are shortened or lengthened by applause or cheering. –or indeed by Mexican waves.

d) Adjudication. Prior to “Studying Popular Music Culture” (Wall, 2013) writers on TV music competitions have infrequently mentioned the selection, roles and duties of music judges on TV. They have been selected and employed by the media organisations, using guidelines set down by their employers. Since the arrival of the “X Factor” the music industry has taken a greater part in selecting judges and promoting performers who have proved that they possess musical and personal skills to become TV personalities. Wall (2013) uses the term “judge-mentor” to describe the present duties of an “X Factor” judge, namely to judge and to provide a role model for a contestant. In the “X Factor” the viewers are invited to vote by phone or text for their favourite artist thus providing a “Vox-Pop” role. Online Forums, texts and Twitter exchanges emphasise the importance of the public working together with judges to select the best performers.

In contrast to the “X Factor” and also “Eurovision Song Contest” organisers of “BBC Young Musician” still employ, as judges, selected “experts” from the music profession, universities and colleges. For example a competition heat featuring “string players” will contain at least one string player in the panel of judges. The process of selection is carried out in private and must be extremely difficult as performers not only perform different solo instruments but also different musical programmes of apparently   different lengths. Prior to the announcement of the results, the announcer and chosen members of the live viewing audience are invited to say how excellent particular performances have been. In contrast, almost no adverse feedback is ever shown even following the announcement by the main adjudicator of the heat or competition winner. In short “X has won” and there can be no argument or “re-run”.

There are three main differences between the adjudication of “Young Musician” and “Eurovision Song Contest”.  In “Young Musician” the adjudicating panels meet at the main competition venue and compare and contrast the performances of the different contestants. In contrast, Eurovision markers meet in their own countries and send their results to the host country of the contest. The arcane marking system they employ means that there is no way of calculating the number of votes given by one country to entries from other countries. Also, in contrast to “Young Musician”, the judges remain anonymous.-hardly surprising as there are many millions of them. A final large difference is that “Young Musician” is adjudicated with regard to performers’ musicianship whereas in the “Eurovision Song Contest”, the reasons for votes being allocated or not often depend on particular countries’ political or economic influence and also their views on gender issues.

III) As regards our final question as to whether Reality TV music competitions have an important and lasting musical meaning for viewers and performers Firstly, as regards viewers, it has been argued by Arnie Cox (Cox, 2001)  and more recently by Windsor and Bezenac (Windsor,W.Luke & Christophe de Bezenac, 2012)  that viewers are not merely passively-affected but also “mimetically” -affected by the visual musical performances. Both writers base their ideas on what they term “affordances”, comprising music-psychological, ethnomusicological and neuroscientific evidence which  points to mutuality of perception and action between environments (in the case of music-concert halls ,TV studios or screens) and  organisms (in the case of  received-music-,listeners, instruments, voices and TV screens). Both authors believe that viewers of Conchita and Bartlett in the TV competitions actually think that they ARE Conchita and Bartlett and “mimetically” take part in their performances. According to Windsor, “the links between performance, composition and reception are underpinned by the mutuality of perception and action” during TV performances, however there is no actual proof that there is any long-term, detrimental effect on viewers.

How about other important and lasting musical meanings for performers and viewers? Might Reality TV music competitions actively support the existence and continuation of our globally “diverse and ever-changing society- incapable of being summed up in any simple formula” (Obelkevich and Catterall, 1994)?. On the one hand It might be so argued as, since the first showing of “the Eurovision Song Contest” in 1956 , the competition has grown both in size of audience  and in importance for music, featuring  increasing numbers of different race, class and gender performers of soul, funk, hip hop and rave numbers. On the other hand the performers of the music on “BBC Young Musician” have been almost entirely white and middle class and their music has been planned to appeal to primarily upper- and middle-class audiences .Indeed only one black performer, namely17 year old Isata  Kanah-Mason was invited to appear on this year’s BBC Young Musician”  and the network’s newly-created sister programme “BBC Young Jazz Musician” featured no black finalists at all in the recent Final.
Also, with reference to our “diverse and ever-changing society” could TV music competitions do more to interest more viewers to compose and perform new types of music? Frequent attempts have been made in “BBC Young Musician” to show that students in comprehensive schools are just as capable of performing abstruse Modernist music as are those in Music academies such as Chethams and the Purcell School. Despite the increasing number of Reality TV music competitions such as “The Voice” and “The Choir” there has not as yet been a mass movement to interest all school students in music making and composing. Indeed ,until now, many primary schools in UK and other countries throughout the world have been unable to afford music teachers and musical instruments for their pupils.
Finally, what do such Reality Music competitions mean for the winners and losers? They can mean, of course, instant celebrity- either on a global scale as in “Eurovision” or on a smaller scale as in “Young Musician”. This does not just mean that their lives and music become  “household names” but also that their lives become connected to popular and classical music, to recording companies and producersr and ,often, to daily products such as different types of coffee and perfume. Ideally the financial gains that winners make should be to promote their musicianship, namely to find better music teachers, better facilities, better opportunities.  They also have to learn how to deal with instant fame and to carefully evaluate their own skill and knowledge. This is best done by listening to their own performances-totally devoid of accompanying commentaries and artificially-produced sounds and visuals. For the losers (that is 99% of participants) there is often immediate sadness and contrition. Why did they lose? What did they do wrong? In the two competitions in question apparently little feedback is provided by judges in “Young Musician” and none at all in “Eurovision”. Reality Music competitions would mean so much more for performers and for viewers if judges’ decisions were explained in full to them. Many more musical openings should be available to the losers and indeed to the viewers of all ages and abilities..
In conclusion, I believe that music should have a wider meaning on reality TV and , leading from that, that TM music shouldn’t just revolve around competition. For example, Channel 4 is currently staging a series of programmes entitled “My Last Summer” in which terminally ill patients are being invited to speak about their lives. Could this lead the way to the media’s greater use of Reality TV as a therapeutic means (Frith, 1983) in which people of all ages and abilities are encouraged to participate together in creating and performing music rather than just competing against one another? May we hope that the “Victory for the ISM’s Protect Music Education campaign” announced by Deborah Annetts on July 22nd will not merely protect music education but will also bring it to more people.

©David Biermann 7.7.2014
______________________________________.










































Bibliography

Anon., 2012. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. 5th ed. London: Pearson Longman.
Ball, P., 2010. The Music Instinct. London: Bodley Head.
Berger, A. A., 2012. Media Analysis Techniques. 4th ed. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Biermann, D., 1994. Switched On. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Budd, M., 1992. Music and the Emotions. London: Routledge.
Budd, M., 2008. Aesthetic Essays. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chanan, M., 2002. Television's Problem with Classical Music. Popular Music, 21(03), pp. pp 367-374.
Cook, N., 1990. Music ,Imagination and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cox, A., 2001. The Mimetic Hypothesis and Embodied Musical Meaning. Musicae Scientiae, 5(no 2), pp. 195-212.
Cross; Cross, Ian;, n.d. Music and Meaning,ambiguity and evolution. s.l.:s.n.
Dahlgren, P., 1995. Television and the Public Sphere. London: Sage.
Davies, D. S., 1994. Musical Meaning and Expression. New York: Cornell University Press.
de Saussure, F., 1966. Course in General Linguistics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
ed.Hesmondhalgh, D. & Hesmondhalgh, D., 2006. Media Production. Maidehead: Open University Press.
Frith, S., 1983. The Industrilisation of Music. New York: Routledge.
Frith, S., 2002. TV and Popular Music. Popular Music, Volume 21, pp. pp 245-248.
Gorbmann, C., 1987. Unheard Melodies. s.l.:BFI.
Gorbmann, C., n.d. Unheard Melodies. s.l.:s.n.
Hamilton, A., 2007. Aesthetics & Music. s.l.:Coninuum International Publishing Group.
Hanslick, E., 2008. vom Musikalsich-Schoenen. Leipzig: Leipzig.
Long, P., 2008. Only in the common people-The Aesthetics of Class in Post-War Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Maconie, R., 1990. Music Listening and Applause. s.l.:s.n.
Maus, F. E., 1997. Music and Meaning. New York: Cornell University Press.
McClary, S., 1991. Feminine Endings: Music, Gender and Sexuality Part 5. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
Meyer, L. B., 1956. Emotion and Meaning in Music. 1st ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Obelkevich, J. & Cattarall, P., 1994. Introduction: Understanding British Society. In: J. Obelkevich & P. Cattarall, eds. Understanding Post-war British Society. London: Routledge, p. 1.
Robinson, J., 1997. Music And Meaning. New York: Cornell University Press.
Scruton, R., 1999. Aesthetic of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Scruton, R. & Scruton, R., n.d. Aesthetics of Music. s.l.:s.n.
Sharpe, R., 2000. Music and Humanism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Susanne, L., 1953. Feeling and Form: a Theory of Art. New York: MacMillan.
Tagg, P., 2012-2013. Music's Meanings. Huddersfield: Mass Media Music Scholars' Press.
Temperley, N., 1965. Music Reception [Lecture to BA Music, Year 2]. Cambridge University: October 1965.
Wall, T., 2013. Studying Popular Music Culture. 2nd ed. London: Sage Publications.
Walton, K., 1994. Listening with Imagination. Is Music representational?. Journal of Aesthetics & Arts Criticism, Volume 52(i), pp. 47-61.
Windsor,W.Luke & Christophe de Bezenac, 2012. Music and affordances. Musicae Scientiae.